Self-esteem and self-acceptance have long been viewed as requisites for healthy personal development. The prominent role played by self-esteem in defining human nature can be found in most theories of personality (e.g., Adler, 1958; Maslow, 1968; Rogers, 1951).Self-esteem is frequently measured in a way that presumes unidimensionality (Coopersmith, 1967; Growe, 1980; Graybill, 1978; Kawash et al., 1985; Litovsky Dusek, 1985; Rosenberg, 1965). Some, however, have suggested that self-esteem may be multidimensional (e.g. Gecas, 1971, 1972; Gecas Schwalbe, 1986; Openshaw, Thomas, Rollins, 1981; Savin-Williams Demo, 1983). For example, in a study of parental behaviors and adolescent self-esteem, Gecas (1971, 1972) identified two factors of self-esteem, “power” and “worth.” In similar work, Openshaw, Thomas, Rollins, (1981, 1984) identified four dimensions of self-esteem: “positive self-esteem,” “self-esteem power,” “self-derogation,” and “self-esteem worth.” In the current study, self-esteem is defined as the multidimensional, evaluative dimension of the self-concept. Given multiple dimensions of self-esteem, the question arises: What is the relationship between various parental behaviors and each dimension of self-esteem? Although some have attempted to answer this question (cf. Gecas, 1971, 1972; Openshaw et al., 1984), these studies lack common procedures, thereby leaving important questions of validity and generalizability unanswered.
Abstract The paper examines work regarding adolescent self-esteem, self-efficacy, perceived control, self-determination and self-regulation, and argues for their importance in constructing adolescent distributed learning environments. These interrelated factors are considered critical in adolescent development; therefore, they require support for student success. The paper applies the concepts of self-determination and its value as derived from studies of adolescents with learning disabilities. The author also examines and applies study findings implicating that failure and other deviant behaviors are motivated by self-esteem considerations. The paper concludes with recommendations for fostering self-directed adolescent learners in distributed learning environments. While the human condition may be universal, special considerations may be given to the condition of students entering particular phases of development. During the period of adolescence, a student enters the phase where he or she is making strides toward adulthood. The concepts of self-direction, self-determination, or self-regulation are central to the achievement of adult status in western societies. This development is greatly affected by a students level of self-esteem, self-efficacy, perceived control, and actual autonomy. The relationship between these factors is dynamic rather than static. The learning environment and interactions with it have been shown to contribute significantly to this phase of student development, especially for adolescents. Ultimately, it is in the distributed learning environment where an adolescent will experience the greatest pressure for the development and attainment of self-direction. An adolescent student in such an environment experiences a much higher level of autonomy than afforded in a “traditional” classroom, but will only be effective if he or she can manage it.
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